THE PROBLEM OF ENFORCEMENT IN INTERNATIONAL LAW COUNTERMEASURES【2025|PDF|Epub|mobi|kindle电子书版本百度云盘下载】

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Introduction1

1 The international community, jus cogens norms and obligations erga omnes11

1 Introduction11

2 Transition from bilateralism to the ‘international community as a whole'12

2.1 A bilateralist approach12

2.2 Community interests in contemporary international law14

3 The concepts of jus cogens and obligations erga omnes21

3.1 Peremptory norms of international law21

3.1.1 The legal roots of peremptory norms and state consent22

3.1.2 The scope, content and legal effect ofperemptory norms25

3.1.3 Treaty execution and indirect violations of jus cogens norms29

3.2 Obligations erga omnes33

3.2.1 The Barcelona Traction case34

3.2.2 Collective interests before international bodies and legal standingfor violations erga omnes37

3.2.2.1 Standingfor treaty-based obligations establishing general interests39

3.2.2.2 The doctrine of indispensable third rights43

3.2.2.3 Erga omnes claims before international judicial bodies45

3.2.2.4 Concluding observations48

3.2.3 Scope and content of obligations erga omnes49

4 Conclusion52

2 Community interests in the law on state responsibility54

1 Introduction54

2 The ILC's mandate to cod the law on state responsibility56

3 Content of the obligation breached and subjects entitled to invoke state responsibility58

3.1 Early approaches to responsibility and standing60

3.2 Approaches to responsibility and standing after World War II62

4 State crimes in the law on state responsibility64

5 Countermeasures as enforcement of international law68

5.1 The progressive development of countermeasures68

5.2 Conditions and functions of countermeasures71

5.3 Subjects entitled to resort to countermeasures73

6 Jus cogens norms, erga omnes obligations and third States in the Final Articles on State Responsibility76

6.1 State crimes and serious breaches ofperemptory norms76

6.2 The injured state and states other than the injured79

6.3 Countermeasures by states other than the injured85

7 Conclusion88

3 Countermeasures in the name of community interests in state practice90

1 Introduction90

2 Economic measures as a means of coercion93

3 Foreign policy and human rights96

4 European community action99

5 Responses to violations of collective interests in state practice102

5.1 State action not amounting to countermeasures103

5.1.1 Soviet action against Israel （1956）103

5.1.2 The Bonn Declaration （19 78） and the hijacking incident （1981）104

5.1.3 US action against Iraq （1980）107

5.1.4 Denmark against Turkey （2000）108

5.2 Countermeasures by states other than the injured in state practice109

5.2.1 Slavery and the United States-Great Britain Mixed Commission （1853）110

5.2.2 Coercive action againstJapan （1940-41）113

5.2.3 US measures against North Korea and China （1950）114

5.2.4 Organization ofAmerican States （OAS） against the Dominican Republic （1960）114

5.2.5 Action against Greece （1967）116

5.2.6 The Arab oil embargo （1973）122

5.2.6.1 An introduction to the Arab Israeli conflict122

5.2.6.2 Legality of the oil measures in international law123

5.2.6.3 Concluding observations125

5.2.7 Unilateral coercive action against Portugal （1973）126

5.2.8 US embargo against Uganda （1978）126

5.2.9 Action against the Central African Republic （1979）132

5.2.10 US action against Libya （1979）133

5.2.11 Netherlands' action against Surinam （1980）133

5.2.12 Action against Liberia （1980）135

5.2.13 The Soviet invasion in Afghanistan （1980）135

5.2.14 International reaction to the Teheran hostage crisis （1980）141

5.2.15 Imposition of martial law in Poland and Soviet involvement （1981）145

5.2.16 US action against Nicaragua （1982）152

5.2.17 The Falklands crisis （1982）156

5.2.18 Non-forcible action against the Soviet Union for the destruction of a civil aircraft in flight （1983）163

5.2.19 Countermeasures against the apartheid regime in South Africa （1960-64 and 1986）165

5.2.19.1 Introductory note165

5.2.19.2 The Indian reaction （1946）166

5.2.19.3 Reaction ofAfrican states167

5.2.19.4 Calls far the imposition of an oil embargo against South Africa168

5.2.19.5 US reaction169

5.2.19.6 Reaction of the Dutch government173

5.2.19.7 Canadian measures against apartheid175

5.2.19.8 Other action176

5.2.19.9 Concluding observations177

5.2.20 US action against Panama （1988）177

5.2.21 The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and EEC response （1990）178

5.2.22 EC measures against Haiti （1991）181

5.2.23 Countermeasures against Yugoslavia （1991）182

5.2.24 Peaceful coercive measures against Nigeria （1995）189

5.2.25 Unilateral coercive action against Burundi （1996）190

5.2.26 US action against Sudan （1997-2005）190

5.2.27 Coercive action against Burma/Myanmar（1997-2005）191

5.2.28 Collective action against Yugoslavia （1998）191

5.2.29 Legal issues arisingfrom extradition agreements（1989 and 1991）196

5.2.30 Unilateral coercive action against Zimbabwe（2002-2008）197

5.2.31 US action against Syria （2003-2004）198

5.2.32 Action against Belarus （2004-2006）199

5.2.33 The ruling of the ECJ in Kadi and Al Barakaat （2008）199

6 Legal assessment of state practice and opinio juris201

6.1 Elements of customary rules of international law202

6.2 Some conclusions from the analysis of state practice203

7 Conclusion208

4 Self-contained regimes, solidarity measures and the fragmentation of international law210

1 Introduction210

2 Relationship between the law on treaties and the law on state responsibility212

3 Lex specialis, self-contained regimes andgeneral international law216

3.1 Application of countermeasures and principles under general international law within self-contained regimes222

3.1.1 The law on diplomatic immunities222

3.1.2 The EUas a self-contained regime222

3.1.3 Human rights treaties225

3.2 Application of countermeasures and principles under general international law within the WTO227

3.2.1 The WTO example227

3.2.2 Legal nature and jurisdiction of the WTO228

3.2.3 The general and security exceptions under Articles XX and XXI of GATT238

4 Lex specialis and self-contained regimes in the 2001 Final Articles on State Responsibility239

5 On the risk offragmentation of international law241

6 Conclusion246

5 The principle of proportionality248

1 Introduction248

2 The principle of proportionality in the law of the EU250

3 The concept ofproportionality in national law253

4 Proportionality in jus ad bellum and jus in bello254

4.1 Introduction254

4.2 Jus ad bellum255

4.3 Jus in bello256

4.4 Proportionality in state practice and judicial review257

5 Proportionality in the law of countermeasures260

5.1 In search of international enforcement260

5.2 Legal constraints of countermeasures263

5.3 Concept of proportionality in the work of the ILC265

5.4 Development of proportionality in the law of countermeasures269

6 A critical assessment of proportionality in the law on countermeasures276

7 Conclusion279

Conclusion281

Appendix: UN and other documentation293

Bibliography312

Index324